Self-Medication for oral health problems in COVID-19 outbreak: Prevalence and associated factors / Automedicación para enfermedades orales durante la pandemia del COVID-19: prevalencia y factores asociados

Abstract This study aimed to investigate self-medication in the COVID-19 outbreak among patients attending the dental clinic of Zanjan University of Medical Sciences. The total number of patients who took part in this research was 306, and they were questioned using a 28-item questionnaire after signing a permission form. SPSS26 was used to gather and analyze the data. There were 196 women and 110 males among the patients.The results showed that the prevalence of self-medication was 53.9%, and a lower educational level was associated with self-medication. The most common problem for self-medicating was toothache, and the most frequent drug was Ibuprofen. The majority of the participants reported that their relatives/friends suggested the drugs to them. The main source of obtaining the drugs was pharmacies. The major reasons for self-medication were the high cost of dental treatments and fear of COVID-19.

Resumen Este estudio tuvo como objetivo investigar la automedicación durante la pandemia de COVID-19 entre los pacientes que asisten a la clínica dental de la Universidad de Ciencias Médicas de Zanjan. El número total de pacientes que participaron en esta investigación fue de 306, y fueron interrogados mediante un cuestionario de 28 ítems después de firmar un formulario de autorización. SPSS26 se utilizó para recopilar y analizar los datos. Entre los pacientes había 196 mujeres y 110 varones. Los resultados mostraron que la prevalencia de automedicación fue del 53,9%, y un menor nivel educativo se asoció con la automedicación. El problema más común para la automedicación fue el dolor de "muelas", y el fármaco más frecuente fue el ibuprofeno. La mayoría de los participantes informaron que sus familiares/ amigos les sugirieron los medicamentos. La principal fuente de obtención de los medicamentos fueron las farmacias. Las principales razones para la automedicación fueron el alto costo de los tratamientos dentales y el miedo al COVID-19.

Predictors of self-medication with herbal remedies during pregnancy based on the theory of planned behavior in Kashan, Iran.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of application of medicinal herbs during pregnancy has increased significantly among women over the past years; however, the safety and efficacy of medicinal herbs during pregnancy are still unclear. The aim of the present study was to categorize the predictors of self-medication with herbal remedies during pregnancy based on the theory of planned behavior (TPB). METHODS: The present descriptive-analytical study was conducted on 300 pregnant women referred to Kashan health center to receive prenatal care services in 2020. The study participants were randomly selected using stratified random sampling with proportional allocation. The data collection tool was a two-part researcher made questionnaire. The first part of the questionnaire included demographic information, midwifery information, and questions related to women's awareness about herbal medicine. The second part of the questionnaire was designed based on the theory of planned behavior including attitudes, perceived behavioral control, subjective norms, intention, and behavior performance. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, regression analysis, and SPSS version 18.0. RESULTS: The mean age of participants was 28. 7±5.4 years (range, 15-45 years), the majority were housewives (88.3%) and had secondary education (39.3%). A total of 164 women (57. 1%) used medicinal herbs during pregnancy. The individual's attitude towards herbal medicines consumption, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control was correlated with behavioral intention (P < 0.05). Similarly, subjective norms were the most predictor of using herbal medicine among pregnant women (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The findings revealed that more than 50 % of pregnant women used medicinal herbs during pregnancy. The present study showed that the individual's attitude towards herbal medicines consumption, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control was correlated with intention of herbal medicine use among pregnant women. Likewise, subjective norms were the most predictor of herbal medicine use among pregnant women. The TPB should be addressed in planning health education programs and modifying health behaviors, including self-medication, especially during pregnancy.

Self-Medication-Related Behaviors and Poland's COVID-19 Lockdown.

(1) Background: The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has changed the functioning of Polish health systems. Telemedicine has been developed and access to prescription drugs (Rx) has been facilitated. This study examined whether these changes and the imposition of a three-month lockdown caused Polish people to engage in more self-medication-related behaviors. (2) Method: After the fourth (final) stage of defrosting the Polish economy, an online survey of a quota sample of 1013 Polish respondents was conducted. (3) Results: Almost half of the respondents (45.6%) indicated that they had engaged in at least one behavior associated with inappropriate self-medication during the lockdown (e.g., 16.6% took medication as a precaution, and 16.8% took an Rx formulation without consultation). Some of these people had never engaged in such behaviors prior to the lockdown. Linear regression showed that higher values of a composite ("lockdown") index of self-medication-related behaviors occurring during lockdown were predicted by greater religiosity and the presence of children in a household. Also, independent samples t-tests showed that people who were afraid for their financial future and people who feared for their health obtained higher lockdown index scores than people not having such worries. (4) Conclusions: Self-medication-related behaviors were more common among Poles before lockdown than during the lockdown (which is unsurprising given that the lengths of the periods compared were hugely different), worryingly, many people exhibited such behaviors for the first time during the lockdown.

Self-Medicating for Pain: A Public Health Perspective.

BACKGROUND: Pain is one of the symptoms for which any man is willing not only to go to the doctor but also to resort to any means, including self-medication, to "get rid" of it. Self-medication is not only a current practice but also a public health problem, under the circumstances that it can influence the way in which a disease is diagnosed and/or treated in a timely manner, and, consequently, repercussions may occur on the cost of treatment, in the case of severe forms. Pain is a vital symptom, and the diminution until the disappearance of pain is a fundamental right of each individual; the analysis of ethical issues in the case of self-administration of analgesic medication has not been a major concern. AREAS OF UNCERTAINTY: Understanding the problem is important to realize whether self-medicating for pain is a necessity or an abuse, and in this respect, we review scientific articles from international databases: PubMed and ProQuest. DATA SOURCES: The study is based on the consultation of scientific articles from international databases-PubMed and ProQuest, the main keywords in the search being pain and self-medication, to which a stigma or public health is sequentially added. RESULTS: Pain is becoming more and more a global problem and the extent of its spread can substantiate our assertion about pathology with pandemic impact. Under the pressure of patient associations, of the media, and of nonmedical authorities, the opinion about the need for a stoic approach to pain has long become an outdated theory, and chronic pain, beyond a multidimensional approach, is increasingly considered not only a useless element but also even a destructive one. CONCLUSIONS: Pain and self-medication must be addressed, including in medical practice, starting from their multidimensionality from the following perspectives: medicobiological, sociocultural, instructive-educational, legal-political, and especially ethical. They are not only individual health problems but also become, when connected with a stigma, a public health problem.

In the midst of curricular revision, remember the importance of over-the-counter and self-care education.

INTRODUCTION: Over-the-counter (OTC) and self-care products are frequently utilized by adult patients as initial treatment for common health issues. This availability of OTC/self-care products, coupled with the accessibility of community-based pharmacists, uniquely positions pharmacists to serve as stewards of appropriate OTC/self-care treatment. As a result, community-based pharmacists must be competent in the practice of providing individualized, patient-specific, OTC recommendations and self-care education to assist patients in achieving optimal self-managed health outcomes. COMMENTARY: Schools and colleges of pharmacy often undergo curricular revision/integration. As a result, it is often necessary to reallocate credit hours dedicated to OTC/self-care content. Curriculum committees should therefore be aware of several best-practice resources that may assist them with this task. IMPLICATIONS: The impact on OTC/self-care content during curricular revision/integration directly effects the preparation of graduate ready student pharmacists and ultimately patient's self-managed health outcomes. Considerations include appointing an OTC/self-care champion to oversee the integration of OTC/self-care content as well as post-revision monitoring to ensure core topic areas are being adequately covered in the didactic curriculum and in accordance with best practices.

Prevalence of cannabis use has significantly increased in patients with cyclic vomiting syndrome.

INTRODUCTION: Cyclic vomiting syndrome (CVS) is a functional gastrointestinal disorder which leads to multiple hospitalizations and causes significant impairment of quality of life. Cannabis use is common in patients with CVS, and there are limited data on the national trends in the prevalence of its use in the United States. METHODS: We used the National Inpatient Sample (NIS) database from 2005 to 2014 and identified hospitalizations with a primary diagnosis of CVS by utilizing the International Classification of Diseases, 9th revision Clinical Modification (ICD-9 CM) coding system. The primary objective of the study was to analyze the prevalence and trends in cannabis use in CVS patients. We also assessed healthcare resource utilization associated with cannabis use. RESULTS: A total of 129 090 hospitalizations with a primary diagnosis of CVS were identified and included in the study. In the United States, the overall rate of cannabis use among these patients was 104 per 1000 hospitalizations (N = 13 460). Over the last decade, the prevalence of cannabis use increased by 10-fold, from 2.2% in 2005 to 21.2% in 2014. CONCLUSION: Our analysis of the national database suggests that nearly 1 in 5 CVS hospitalizations have concurrent cannabis use. This prevalence is significantly rising over the last decade, perhaps due to changing legislation and increased utilization of cannabis. Age younger than 35, male gender, African American and Native American race, personal history of alcohol abuse and tobacco use were some of the strongest predictors of cannabis use.

Characterization of diverted buprenorphine use among adults entering corrections-based drug treatment in Kentucky.

BACKGROUND: Illicit, medically unsupervised use of buprenorphine (i.e., "diverted use") among vulnerable and underserved populations, such as corrections-involved adults, remains underexplored. METHODS: Survey data (2016-2017) collected as part of a clinical assessment of incarcerated adults entering corrections-based substance use treatment in Kentucky were analyzed. For years examined, 12,915 completed the survey. Removing cases for participants who did not reside in Kentucky for >6 months during the one-year pre-incarceration period (n = 908) resulted in a final sample size of 12,007. RESULTS: Over a quarter of the sample reported past-year diverted buprenorphine use prior to incarceration and 21.8 % reported use during the 30-days prior to incarceration, using 6.5 months and 14.3 days on average, respectively. A greater proportion of participants who reported diverted buprenorphine use had previously been engaged with some substance use treatment (77.0 %) and reported greater perceived need for treatment (79.4 %) compared to those who did not report use. Use was more likely among participants who were younger, white, male, and who reported rural or Appalachian residence. Diverted buprenorphine users also evidenced extensive polydrug use and presented with greater substance use disorder severity. Non-medical prescription opioid, heroin, and diverted methadone use were associated with increased odds of diverted buprenorphine use while kratom was not. Diverted methadone use was associated with a 252.9 % increased likelihood of diverted buprenorphine use. CONCLUSIONS: Diverted buprenorphine use among participants in this sample was associated with concerning high-risk behaviors and may indicate barriers to accessing opioid agonist therapies for corrections-involved Kentucky residents, particularly those in rural Appalachia.

Estudio sobre Automedicación y Ansiedad en Endodoncia / Study on Self-Medication and Anxiety in Endodontis

Objetivos. Los objetivos de este son: 1. Evaluar el consumo de medicamentos, así como la automedicación entre los individuos que acuden a realizarse una endodoncia. 2.Evaluar la mejoría de sintomatología tras la toma de medicación. 3. Evaluar la ansiedad dental entre los pacientes sometidos a tratamiento endodóntico previo a la intervención. Material y Métodos: Se realizó un estudio de tipo observacional, transversal y comparativo, consistente en una encuesta sobre pacientes mayores de 16 años que acudieron a una clínica universitaria odontológica. Resultados: Se recopilaron 167 encuestas entre septiembre de 2017 y marzo del 2018, siendo válidas 131 y no válidas 36, cuyos resultados más destacados fueron los siguientes: · Ingesta de antibióticos + analgésicos y/o AINES (40,6%)· Ingesta analgésicos y/o AINES (59,4%). Origen de esa medicación; 44,6% prescrita por el odontólogo, seguida del 42,7% que corresponde a la tomada por decisión propia, 10,8% al médico de cabecera, 2,7% a urgencias y 0% al farmacéutico y de origen homeopático. Media de ansiedad en la escala de 4,38. La media de ansiedad en mujeres: 5 y en hombres: 3,2 (p: 0.0066). Grupo con algún tipo de formación académica; media de ansiedad: 4,24 y grupo sin ningún estudio; media de ansiedad: 8,75 (p: 0.0144). Conclusiones: Los pacientes encuestados tenían una alta tendencia a la automedicación, utilizándose fundamentalmente analgésicos y/o AINES. Además, referían mejoría en el día de la intervención tras haber tomado algún tipo de medicamento. Los pacientes encuestados sufrieron un grado de ansiedad medio previo a la realización del tratamiento endodóntico

Objectives: The objectives of this study are: 1. To evaluate the consumption of medicines as well as self-medication among the individuals who undergo endodontics.2. To evaluate the improvement of symptoms after taking medication. 3. To evaluate dental anxiety among patients undergoing endodontic treatment prior to the intervention. Material and Methods: An observational, transversal and comparative study was carried out, consisting of a survey of patients over 16 years of age who attended a university dental clinic. Results: In this study 167 surveys were collected, between September 2017 and March 2018, with 131 valid and 36 invalid. Taking antibiotics + analgesics and/or NSAIDs (40.6%) and analgesics and/or NSAIDs (59.4%); Origin of that medication; 44.6% prescribed by the dentist, followed by the 42.7% prescribed by the dentist, 10.8% by the general practitioner, 2.7% by the emergency department and 0% by the pharmacist and homeopathic origin. Average anxiety on the 4.38 scale. Average anxiety in women: 5 and in men: 3.2 (p: 0.0066).Group with some type of academic training; mean anxiety: 4.24 and group without any study; mean anxiety: 8.75 (p: 0.0144). Conclusions: The patients surveyed had a high tendency to self-medication, mainly using analgesics and/or NSAIDs. They also reported improvement on the day of the intervention after having taken some type of medication. The patients surveyed suffered a medium degree of anxiety prior to the endodontic treatment

Self-medication practice trend among the Brazilian elderly between 2006 and 2010: SABE Study. / Tendência da prática de automedicação entre idosos brasileiros entre 2006 e 2010: Estudo SABE.

INTRODUCTION: Self-medication involves the concept of the spontaneous search by the individual for some drug that he or she considers appropriate to solve a health problem. Self-medication practice is little explored by the elderly according to other studies based in population data. OBJECTIVE: To examine the trends in self-medication practice among the Brazilian elderly between 2006 and 2010. METHODS: This is a population-based study whose data were obtained from the Health, Well-being and Ageing Study (SABE Study). Thesample consisted of 1,257 elderly people in 2006 and 865 in 2010, who used drugs. RESULTS: The findings showed self-medication reduction from 42.3% in 2006 to 18.2% in 2010. In both periods, predominant utilized therapeutic classes were those acting on the nervous system (27.9% in 2006, and 29.6% in 2010) and on the alimentary tract and metabolism (25.5% in 2006, and 35.9% in 2010). The most commonly used medicines in 2006 and 2010 were analgesics, anti-inflammatories, and vitamins. There was a tendency to decrease the use of potentially inappropriate medicines between 2006 (26.4%) and 2010 (18.1%). The elderly themselves were the main responsible for the decision about the drug use in 2006 (62.5%) and 2010 (66.5%). CONCLUSION: Theextent of self-medication practice among the elderly who participated in the study decreased between 2006 and 2010, but the use of medicines that offer risks to health was still reported. Thus, the findings reinforce the importance of monitoring, evaluating, and continuously educating the elderly about risks and benefits of drug consumption, particularly over-the-counter medicines.

INTRODUÇÃO: Automedicação retrata o princípio do próprio indivíduo buscar espontaneamente por algum medicamento que considere adequado para resolver um problema de saúde. Essa prática é ainda pouco explorada entre idosos de acordo com outros estudos baseados em dados populacionais. Objetivo: Examinar as tendências da prática de automedicação dos idosos do Estudo SABE entre 2006 e 2010. MÉTODO: Estudode base populacional cujos dados foram obtidos do Estudo Saúde, Bem-Estar e Envelhecimento (SABE). Aamostra de 2006 foi constituída de 1.258 idosos e a de 2010, de 865 idosos que utilizaram medicamentos. RESULTADOS: Observou-se redução da automedicação de 42,3% em 2006 para 18,2% em 2010. Em ambos os períodos, as classes terapêuticas predominantes foram as dos medicamentos com ação no sistema nervoso (27,9% em 2006 e 29,6% em 2010) e trato alimentar e metabolismo (25,5% em 2006 e 35,9% em 2010). Entreos medicamentos mais usados nos anos de 2006 e 2010 estão os analgésicos/anti-inflamatórios e vitaminas. Houve tendência a declínio da utilização de medicamentos potencialmente inapropriados entre 2006 (26,4%) e 2010 (18,1%). Oidoso foi o principal responsável pela indicação da automedicação em 2006 (65,2%) e 2010 (66,5%). CONCLUSÃO: A extensão da prática de automedicação nos idosos do SABE apresentou redução entre 2006 e 2010, porém o emprego de medicamentos que oferecem risco à saúde ainda foi relatado. Desse modo, os achados reforçam a importância de monitorar, avaliar e educar continuamente os idosos acerca dos riscos e benefícios do consumo de medicamentos, sobretudo daqueles isentos de prescrição.

Automedicação em adolescentes da rede estadual de ensino na cidade de Picos/Piauí / Self-medication in adolescents of the systemeducatinalin the city of Picos/Piauí / Automedicaciónen adolescentes de laredlaenseñanzaenlaciudad de Picos/Piauí

Objetivo: Analizar La práctica de La automedicación por los adolescentes em lãs escuelas públicas de Picos-PI. Método: Estudio descriptivo transversal que incluyó a 209 adolescentes. La recolección de datos se llevó a cabo em lãs reuniones semanales a través de um cuestionario. Resultados: El grupo de edad más frecuente fue de 17 años 94 (44,9%), 122 (58,4%) eranmujeres, vivía con la familia 129 (61,7%) enlas zonas urbanas 179 (85,7%) y católticos149 (71,2%). 209 (100%) se dedican a La automedicación, y fiebreel síntoma principal 120 (57,4%), y la forma de dosificación de latableta más consumido 168 (57,4%). La principal motivación para La automedicación fuel afacilidad de conseguir las drogas fuera de los establecimientos de salud 103 (49,3%), y 141 (67,5%) está de acuerdoen que los anuncios influyenen este comportamento. Conclusión: Los adolescentes practican La automedicacióncon alta frecuencia, que se refiere a lanecesidad de iniciativas estratégicas e ne lámbito local conelfin de reducir esta práctica

Objetivo: Analisar a prática de automedicação por adolescentes da rede estadual de ensino de Picos-PI. Método: Estudo descritivo e transversal, realizado com 209 adolescentes. A coleta de dados ocorreu em encontros semanais por meio de um questionário. Resultados: A faixa etária mais prevalente (94) foi de 17 anos (44,9%);122 (58,4%) do sexo feminino;129 moravam com a família (61,7%); 179 na zona urbana (85,7%);e 149 católicos (71,2%). 209(100%) praticam a automedicação, sendo a febre (120)o principal sintoma (57,4%), e o comprimido(168) a forma farmacêutica mais consumida (57,4%). A principal motivação para automedicação foi a facilidade de conseguir medicamentos fora dos estabelecimentos de saúde (103) (49,3%);e 141 (67,5%) concordam que propagandas influenciam esse comportamento.Conclusão: Os adolescentes praticam automedicação com elevada frequência, o que remete à necessidade de ações estratégicas a nível local com vistas à redução dessa prática

Objective: To analyze the practice of self-medication by adolescents of the Picos-PI state education system. Method: A descriptive and cross-sectional study with 209 adolescents. The data collection took place in weekly meetings through a questionnaire. Results: The most prevalent age group was 17 years (94.9%), 122 (58.4%) female, living with family 129 (61.7%), urban area 179 (85.7%), , And catholics149 (71.2%). 209 (100%) practice self-medication, fever being the main symptom 120 (57.4%), and the tablet the most consumed pharmaceutical form 168 (57.4%). The main motivation for self-medication was the ease of obtaining drugs outside health facilities 103 (49.3%), and 141 (67.5%) agree that advertisements influence this behavior. Conclusion: Adolescents practice self-medication with high frequency, which points to the need for strategic actions at the local level to reduce this practice

Externalizing and self-medicating: Heterogeneity among repeat DUI offenders.

AIM: Despite significant reductions in Driving Under the Influence (DUI) in the United States during recent decades, DUI continues to be a major public health threat. The current study investigated the intersection of two domains known to influence DUI: criminal history and psychiatric comorbidity. METHODS: DUI recidivists (N = 743) attending a court-mandated two-week inpatient DUI program completed a computerized mental health assessment as part of their intake to that program. Participants' criminal records were obtained 4-5 years after program attendance. FINDINGS: This study identified three primary repeat DUI offender subtypes with distinct patterns of criminal behavior and psychiatric comorbidity: (Type I) those whose DUI emerges from a pattern of drinking to cope with mood and anxiety problems, (Type II) those whose DUI emerges as part of a larger pattern of externalizing and criminal behavior, and (Type III) those whose DUI offenses reflect more acute triggers and isolated episodes of excessive drinking. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that current treatment models used in DUI programs are inadequate to address the heterogeneity in the population of DUI recidivists and that earlier and more comprehensive screening would allow for better targeting of resources to DUI offender subtypes.

La automedicación en estudiantes del Grado en Farmacia / Self-medication in Pharmacy students

La automedicación es la administración de medicamentos para aliviar un síntoma o curar una enfermedad sin pasar por el control médico. Este comportamiento está muy extendido a nivel mundial, incluso dentro de la universidad en la que se forman los futuros profesionales que configurarán los servicios sanitarios de la comunidad. Aunque existen estudios relativos a las conductas de automedicación en la población universitaria en otros países, existen pocos datos relativos a este comportamiento en nuestro ámbito. El propósito de este estudio es estimar el nivel de automedicación en un colectivo universitario, así como los factores asociados a este comportamiento. El hábito de automedicación es muy frecuente en nuestra población de estudio, con una media de un 72,5%. Este valor va ascendiendo curso a curso desde un 53% en el primer curso de carrera hasta el 93% en el último. Casi el total de los alumnos admite la automedicación con analgésicos y es de destacar la automedicación con antibióticos (13,6%) utilizados para situaciones clínicas poco definidas. Más preocupante aún es la automedicación con medicamentos bajo receta regulada, como es el caso de los ansiolíticos y tranquilizantes, usado por un 5% de los estudiantes. Concluimos que el alto porcentaje de automedicación de la población general se ve prácticamente correspondido en esta población de estudiantes de Farmacia. Los medicamentos más consumidos son los analgésicos, antihistamínicos y antigripales; existen, además, porcentajes bajos pero notables de automedicación con antibióticos y ansiolíticos, lo que resulta más preocupante

Self-medication is the administration of medications to relieve a symptom or cure a disease without medical supervision. This behaviour is very widespread worldwide, even within the university in which the future professionals who will play a major role in the community health services are trained. Although there are studies concerning self-medication behaviours in the university population in other countries, there is little data regarding this behaviour in our field. The purpose of this study is to estimate the level of self-medication in a university group of students, as well as the factors associated with this behaviour. The habit of self-medication is very frequent in our study population, with a mean of 72.5%. This figure increases from year to year, from 53% in the first year to 93% in the last. Almost all students admit self-medication with analgesics, and it is worth noting the self-medication with antibiotics (13.6%) used for poorly defined clinical situations. Even more worrying is self-medication with prescription drugs, such as anxiolytics and tranquillisers, used by 5% of students. We conclude that the high percentage of self-medication of the general population is practically matched in this population of pharmacy students. The most commonly used drugs are analgesics, antihistamines and anti-influenza, and there are also low but notable percentages of self-medication with antibiotics and anxiolytics, which is more worrying

Pharmacological cognitive enhancement among non-ADHD individuals-A cross-sectional study in 15 countries.

BACKGROUND: Psychoactive substance use aiming at increased performance at work or while studying, usually referred to as pharmacological cognitive enhancement (PCE), has been extensively researched in recent years. While large scale national studies have tried to assess the prevalence of PCE among the general population, cross-cultural comparisons have been hampered by the different definitions and designs included. In addition, the non-medical use of prescription drugs indicated to treat the symptoms of the Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has been the focus of discussion, yet no study has addressed the association between ADHD rates, prescribing behaviour and PCE yet. METHODS: The Global Drug Survey is an annually conducted anonymous web survey on substance use. Two data sets from male and female Global Drug Survey (GDS) participants aged 16 to 65 years with no previous ADHD diagnosis were analysed to assess12-month PCE in 15 countries. GDS2015 (n = 79,640) examined the patterns of and motives for stimulant PCE, while GDS2017 (n = 29,758) focused on both the use of stimulant and sedative drugs for PCE RESULTS: When comparing the study samples 2015 and 2017, PCE with prescription and illegal stimulants and modafinil increased across all countries. People who used stimulant drugs and modafinil for PCE rated the perceived effect on cognitive performance most beneficial, while alcohol was the substance with the most adverse effect. CONCLUSION: The analysis of data on stimulant use for PCE in the largest global sample highlights relatively low-risk PCE use patterns except for participants with illegal stimulant use for PCE. The globalisation of ADHD, physicians' prescribing behaviour and changes in drug policy are likely to influence the country-specific rate of PCE among non-ADHD individuals what calls for further investigation.

Factors associated with self-medication in Spain: a cross-sectional study in different age groups.

OBJECTIVE: The identification of factors which may influence a patient's decision to self-medicate. METHODS: Descriptive, cross-sectional study of the adult population (at least 16 years old), using data from the 2009 European Health Interview Survey in Spain, which included 22 188 subjects. Logistic regression models enabled us to estimate the effect of each analysed variable on self-medication. KEY FINDINGS: In total, 14 863 (67%) individuals reported using medication (prescribed and non-prescribed) and 3274 (22.0%) of them self-medicated. Using logistic regression and stratifying by age, four different models have been constructed. Our results include different variables in each of the models to explain self-medication, but the one that appears on all four models is education level. Age is the other important factor which influences self-medication. Self-medication is strongly associated with factors related to socio-demographic, such as sex, educational level or age, as well as several health factors such as long-standing illness or physical activity. CONCLUSIONS: When our data are compared to those from previous Spanish surveys carried out in 2003 and 2006, we can conclude that self-medication is increasing in Spain.

Tendência da prática de automedicação entre idosos brasileiros entre 2006 e 2010: Estudo SABE / Self-medication practice trend among the Brazilian elderly between 2006 and 2010: SABE Study

RESUMO: Introdução: Automedicação retrata o princípio do próprio indivíduo buscar espontaneamente por algum medicamento que considere adequado para resolver um problema de saúde. Essa prática é ainda pouco explorada entre idosos de acordo com outros estudos baseados em dados populacionais. Objetivo: Examinar as tendências da prática de automedicação dos idosos do Estudo SABE entre 2006 e 2010. Método: Estudode base populacional cujos dados foram obtidos do Estudo Saúde, Bem-Estar e Envelhecimento (SABE). Aamostra de 2006 foi constituída de 1.258 idosos e a de 2010, de 865 idosos que utilizaram medicamentos. Resultados: Observou-se redução da automedicação de 42,3% em 2006 para 18,2% em 2010. Em ambos os períodos, as classes terapêuticas predominantes foram as dos medicamentos com ação no sistema nervoso (27,9% em 2006 e 29,6% em 2010) e trato alimentar e metabolismo (25,5% em 2006 e 35,9% em 2010). Entreos medicamentos mais usados nos anos de 2006 e 2010 estão os analgésicos/anti-inflamatórios e vitaminas. Houve tendência a declínio da utilização de medicamentos potencialmente inapropriados entre 2006 (26,4%) e 2010 (18,1%). Oidoso foi o principal responsável pela indicação da automedicação em 2006 (65,2%) e 2010 (66,5%). Conclusão: A extensão da prática de automedicação nos idosos do SABE apresentou redução entre 2006 e 2010, porém o emprego de medicamentos que oferecem risco à saúde ainda foi relatado. Desse modo, os achados reforçam a importância de monitorar, avaliar e educar continuamente os idosos acerca dos riscos e benefícios do consumo de medicamentos, sobretudo daqueles isentos de prescrição.

ABSTRACT: Introduction: Self-medication involves the concept of the spontaneous search by the individual for some drug that he or she considers appropriate to solve a health problem. Self-medication practice is little explored by the elderly according to other studies based in population data. Objective: To examine the trends in self-medication practice among the Brazilian elderly between 2006 and 2010. Methods: This is a population-based study whose data were obtained from the Health, Well-being and Ageing Study (SABE Study). Thesample consisted of 1,257 elderly people in 2006 and 865 in 2010, who used drugs. Results: The findings showed self-medication reduction from 42.3% in 2006 to 18.2% in 2010. In both periods, predominant utilized therapeutic classes were those acting on the nervous system (27.9% in 2006, and 29.6% in 2010) and on the alimentary tract and metabolism (25.5% in 2006, and 35.9% in 2010). The most commonly used medicines in 2006 and 2010 were analgesics, anti-inflammatories, and vitamins. There was a tendency to decrease the use of potentially inappropriate medicines between 2006 (26.4%) and 2010 (18.1%). The elderly themselves were the main responsible for the decision about the drug use in 2006 (62.5%) and 2010 (66.5%). Conclusion: Theextent of self-medication practice among the elderly who participated in the study decreased between 2006 and 2010, but the use of medicines that offer risks to health was still reported. Thus, the findings reinforce the importance of monitoring, evaluating, and continuously educating the elderly about risks and benefits of drug consumption, particularly over-the-counter medicines.

Assessment of health seeking behaviour and self-medication among general public in the state of Penang, Malaysia

Background: Patients' behaviour in making decisions regarding health is currently changing from passive recipients to recipients who play an active role in taking action to control their health and taking self-care initiatives. Objectives: This study was conducted to evaluate the health seeking behaviour among general public and its associated factors; and to evaluate the medicine taking behaviour in public and the practice of self-medication. Methods: A cross-sectional study was undertaken among general public in Penang Island, Malaysia. A convenience sampling of 888 participants successfully completed the survey. Self-administered questionnaires were distributed among the residents in the north east of Penang Island. Results: This study showed that most of the participants chose to consult the physician when they experience any health problems (66.7%), followed by self-medication (20.9%). The first action for consulting the physician was significantly predicted by Malay respondents and retired people (OR 3.05, 95% CI 1.04-8.89). The prevalence of self-medication was 54%. The practice of self-medication was significantly associated with Chinese participants, educated people, people with alone living status and people with more self-care orientation. Conclusion: Increasing the awareness of the public about the rational choice of getting medical assistance is a very important issue to control their health. A health education program is needed to increase the awareness about the use of medicines among the general public and to enable them to make the right decisions relating to health problems (AU)

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Mapeando espaços virtuais de informação sobre TDA/H e usos do metilfenidato / Mapping virtual spaces of information on ADHD and uses of methylphenidate

Resumo O consumo do metilfenidato vem atingindo níveis elevados no Brasil. Além do aumento significativo do diagnóstico de TDAH, transtorno cujo tratamento é realizado com metilfenidato, há indícios que este incremento se deu pela automedicação. Sabe-se que informações da internet, mais especificamente do Facebook, exercem forte influência em padrões de uso, apontando importantes desdobramentos do processo de farmaceuticalização da sociedade. Os objetivos deste artigo são introduzir a metodologia de pesquisa digital, mais especificamente, a aplicação de softwares de extração de dados de redes sociais (Facebook), e por meio dela mapear as informações sobre o uso deste medicamento nessas redes. O conteúdo, de acesso público, foi analisado e categorizado mediante ancoragem da literatura sobre o tema da farmaceuticalização. O mapeamento permitiu observar que o Facebook oferece importantes espaços virtuais para a circulação de informações, com um alcance de aproximadamente 600.000 pessoas. Os espaços representam fóruns de discussões onde as principais controvérsias sobre os usos do metilfenidato são colocadas: diagnóstico, identidade TDAH, resistência ao uso do medicamento, aquisição. Considerando os principais pontos suscitados por este mapeamento, é possível afirmar que, no caso do consumo do metilfenidato, seu uso apresenta aspectos da farmaceuticalização da vida cotidiana.

Abstract In the last five years, Brazil has presented a significant increase in ADHD diagnosis. Methylphenidate is the drug of choice for treatment and consumption has reached high levels. There is evidence that this increase is due to self-medication. It is known that information from the internet, specifically from Facebook, exerts a strong influence on use patterns, reflecting important developments in the process of pharmaceuticalization. The objectives of this article are to map information on the use of this medicine in virtual networks, by first introducing the digital research methodology, specifically the application of social networking data extraction software (Facebook). The publicly accessed content was analyzed and categorized using anchoring about pharmaceuticalization, provided by the literature. Facebook provides an important virtual environment for the circulation of information on methylphenidate consumption, with a range of about 600,000 people. The virtual discussion forums address the main controversies about methylphenidate use, which are diagnosis, ADHD identity, resistance to the use of the drug and acquisition. This form of information dissemination permits the identification and characterization of non-therapeutic uses of methylphenidate.

How does the general public view antibiotic use in China? Result from a cross-sectional survey.

Background Resistance to antibiotics is a major threat to global health and general public play a significant role in the fight against antimicrobial resistance. Objective The present study aimed to identify the knowledge, attitudes, and practice of the general public towards antibiotic use in China. Setting Randomly selected parks in three cities of western, central and eastern China: Xi'an, Changsha, and Nanjing. Method A cross-sectional survey was conducted on a sample of 1400 residents, from January to June 2015. Main outcome measures Knowledge, attitudes and practices scores toward self-medication with antibiotics and compliance with antibiotic regimens. Results The response rate was 86.0% (n = 1204). Only 192 (19.5%) respondents gained a score of 3 or above, and the maximum score of 4, reflecting poor knowledge towards antibiotics. Just over half (54.8%) of respondents incorrectly believed antibiotics were effective against viral infections and only one-third (34.3%) knew that antibiotics were not anti-inflammatories. Nearly half of the respondents (49.0%) had changed the dosage when taking antibiotics, 35.6% switched to another class, 33.4% had not finished the full treatment course and over 60.0% kept leftover antibiotics for future use. Almost half of the respondents (45.7%) stated they had used antimicrobials during the last 6 months and 64.4% of them had self-medicated. Conclusion This study identified serious misconceptions regarding antibiotics use in the Chinese general public. Effective interventions should be developed to provide practical and appropriate advice to effect behaviour change within this population.

Antibiotic use practices of pharmacy staff: a cross-sectional study in Saint Petersburg, the Russian Federation.

BACKGROUND: Non-prescription access to antimicrobials is common, and self-prescribing is increasingly popular in Russian society. The aim of this study was to assess the attitudes of community pharmacists regarding antibiotic use and self-medication. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study from September-December 2015 of community pharmacists in the Saint-Petersburg and Leningrad region, Russia. A self-administered questionnaire was used to assess antibiotic use and self-medication practices. The data were analysed using logistic regression and Pearson chi-squared tests. RESULTS: Of the 316 pharmacists (77.07%) who completed the questionnaire, 230 (72.8%) self-medicated with antibiotics. Antibiotics were mostly used to self-treat upper (53.3%) and lower respiratory tract infections (19.3%), relying on their own knowledge (81.5%), previous treatment experience (49%) and patients' prescriptions (17%). The most commonly used antibiotics were macrolides (33.2%). Characteristics such as age, education and experience were related to antibiotic use and self-medication. CONCLUSIONS: The study confirmed that self-prescription of antibiotics is a common practice amongst pharmacists in Saint Petersburg and also identified personal and professional characteristics of pharmacists strongly associated with self-medication.